Introduction
Dance, as a product of culture and philosophy, illustrates the different understandings and pursuits of beauty against the distinct cultural backgrounds of China and the West. The ballet of 18th century Europe and Tang Dynasty Dance are two important stages in the history of Chinese and Western dance. Although they emerged in different eras and have distinct forms of expression, they share numerous similarities. By comparing and analyzing the ballet of the 18th century and Tang Dynasty dance, we can not only grasp the differences in dance forms but also understand the aesthetic concepts in the East and West, thereby enriching the understanding of beauty.
Historical and Cultural Background
- Historical and Cultural Background of 18th Century Ballet
The 18th century was an important transitional period in the history of ballet. At the end of the 17th century, King Louis XIV of France founded the Royal Academy of Music and the Royal Academy of Dance. These institutions helped standardize and refine ballet training and performance to a large degree. In the 18th century, capitalism on the rise strived to steer ballet in a direction that conformed more to the contemporary tastes. Despite great developments in the European capitalist economy, feudal regimes had yet to be dismantled. At the same time, the Enlightenment movement played an important role for advocating ration, science, and equality. Thus, ballet during this time transformed from conservatism to innovation.
- Historical and Cultural Background of Tang Dynasty Dance
The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous era in China. The artistic accumulation from previous eras (the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties), combined with the cultural communications through the Silk Road, allowed China to learn from a wealth of foreign cultures, especially dances and music. These combined to enrich the local dance forms. As a result, the artistic development of Chinese dance reached a peak during this period. Dancing became a common social activity involving both the nobility and the common people. This led to rich expressions of different styles and a variety of dances, including court dances, folk dances, and religious dances. What’s more, Tang Dynasty Dance was deeply influenced by the philosophical thoughts of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Confucianism emphasized Li (“礼”), which literally translates to “rituals” and stands for etiquette and rites; Daoism viewed nature as the highest beauty and stressed the idea of WuWei ("无为”), which means non-interference and going with the flow; while Zen Buddhist thoughts focused on subtlety and depth, trying to express the atmosphere of Kong ("空”, emptiness), Xu ("虚”, void), and Jing ("静”, tranquillity).
Similarities
- Functionality and Rituality
In both eras, dancing was not just a form of entertainment but also served as a means of education. Originally mainly performed in court, ballet gradually entered public theaters since the 18th century, taking on the responsibility of moral education for the general public. Dancers express vivid emotions through the narrative dancing performance, allowing audiences to enjoy the art and at the same time gain emotional resonance and moral insights. Similarly, Tang Dynasty Dance played diverse roles in social lives, especially in religious and celebratory events. Dancing became a promotion of social harmony and higher spiritual pursuits. In religious rituals, dancers exhibited reverence towards deities through their graceful movements. During national celebrations, dancing became an important way of celebrating prosperity and unity, embodying societal joy and beautiful visions.
The ritualistic aspects of both dance forms also show similarities. In 18th century ballet, particularly in court performances represented by the Paris Opera, strict choreography and standardized steps reflected the importance placed on etiquette at the time. Each ballet performance was not just a display of technique, but also a symbol of power and prestige. In this vein, dance became a ritual that reinforced the social status and cultural identity of the noble class. The same profound ritualistic element was found in Tang Dynasty Dance. In royal banquets and religious ceremonies, dance performance was often regarded as a vital part of the rituals, conveying respect for authority, deities, and social order. Dancers, through elegant movements and splendid costumes, embodied the prestige and cultural confidence of the state, expressing a sense of harmony and solemnity.
- Music and Emotion
In the 18th century, ballet gradually moved away from its dependence on opera and evolved into an independent performing art. At this time, music became a crucial component of the dance performance. Dancers became not only the performers of the choreography but also the emotional interpreters of the music. Marie Sallé introduced the concept of “ballet d'action,” emphasizing that dance should convey emotion through movement. Later, Jean-Georges Noverre further developed this idea, asserting that dancing should be narrative in nature, with each movement expressing the innermost emotions of the characters. Also, Noverre’s concept of “dramatic ballet” highlighted the interaction between dance and music, where dancers’ movements often echoed the emotional climaxes of the music. This close coordination of dance and music established a strong emotional resonance between dancers and the audience, strengthening the expressiveness of the dance. This development also laid a solid foundation for the Romantic ballet of the 1820s, driving the development of dance as a narrative art form.
Similarly, in China, the Tang Dynasty Dance exhibited a strong connection between music and dancing movements. Tang Dynasty Dancing were mainly accompanied by music played by traditional Chinese instruments, such as Di ("笛”, flute), Sheng (“笙”), Pipa (“琵琶”), and Zheng (“筝”). The melodies and rhythms of these instruments added depth to the emotional expression of the dance. In choreographing the dances, choreographers paid close attention to changes in the music, ensuring that dancers could adapt their movements in harmony with the fluctuations of the music. For example, in classic works like Rainbow Skirt Feathered Dress Dance ("霓裳羽衣曲”), dancers enhanced their dynamic movements, incorporating more jumps and spins to align with the passionate and uplifting music, conveying passion and vitality. Conversely, in more gentle melodies, dancers expressed the subtlety of emotions through delicate dance movements.
Despite their very different historical and social contexts, 18th century ballet and Tang Dynasty dance display similar functional and ritualistic qualities. Dance was not only a form of entertainment, but also assumed the functions of moral education and social expression. In the 18th century, ballet moved from the court to the public theatre and became a vehicle for conveying emotions and moral teachings, while Tang Dynasty dance became an important element in expressing social harmony and spirituality in religious and ceremonial events. In addition, music and emotion play an important role in both dance forms. Ballet presents an emotional narrative through the combination of independent music and dance, while Tang Dynasty dance adds layers of emotional expression through the accompaniment of traditional instruments. This close integration allows dance to serve as a bridge between cultural transmission and emotional resonance.
Differences
- Cultural Background and Philosophical Foundation
The aesthetics of 18th century ballet were influenced by both Classicism and the Enlightenment movement. Enlightenment thinkers criticized the opulence and superficiality of court ballet. They believed that “art should imitate nature” and that “everything created freely is correct.” Their thoughts influenced the dance artists at the time. During this period, Europe experienced dramatic social upheaval. Before, ballet was a symbol of noble power within royal courts. However, with the rise of Enlightenment ideals, ballet gradually extended into public theaters, which can be seen as a representation of the emergence of popular culture. Enlightenment philosophers promoted a realistic style of performance, emphasizing the understanding of the world through reason, science, and equality. For instance, Jean Dauberval ’s La Fille mal gardée（The Wayward Daughter） tells the story of a young couple in love, reflecting themes of marital freedom and opposition to class distinctions.
In contrast to the pursuit of individualism and rationalism through ballet, the cultural background and philosophical foundations of Tang Dynasty Dance were influenced by Confucian and Daoist thought, which emphasized harmony between humanity, nature, and society. Daoist philosophy advocated for “following the way of nature,” promoting adherence to natural laws. This philosophy was integrated into dancing, resulting in movements that were flexible and smooth, showcasing the beauty of harmonious coexistence with nature. In addition, Confucian culture emphasized etiquette and social responsibilities, making dance less of a personal artistic expression but more of a reflection of social ethics and values, underscoring the pursuit of a harmonious family and society.
- Dance Movements and Forms
In 18th century Europe, ballet developed artistic characteristics that emphasized verticality, symmetry, and standardization. The movements became highly formalized, requiring dancers to undergo extensive professional training to meet technical standards and precision. For example, the gentle extension of the arms, outwardly positioned feet, and upright posture combined to form a dance aesthetic that emphasizes graceful lines and precise movements. The importance of reason and order in the Enlightenment was similarly expressed through ballet dancing at the time.
In contrast to the standardization of ballet, the styles of the Tang Dynasty Dance were diverse and rich. The “performative dance,” for example, classified dances into feminine and masculine types, referred to as “soft dances” and “energetic dances.” “Strong dances” was characterized by agility, speed, and power, while “soft dances” displayed elegance and tenderness. Moreover, the distinction between soft and strong was ambiguous. The ancient Chinese artistic philosophy advocated for a most desirable art form that incorporates both soft and strong to form a harmonious whole. Overall, the movements and postures in Tang Dynasty Dance were fluid, and dynamic.
- Costumes and Stage Design
The costumes of 18th century ballet underwent significant changes. Wigs and whale-bone skirts were discarded. Skirts became lighter and gradually shorter, wing dalloancers to perform more difficult jumps and leg movements. Also, high-heeled ballet shoes were increasingly replaced by flat soft shoes. To meet technical requirements, Noverre advocated for the abandonment of high heels that hindered dancers' performance. The benefits were demonstrated by increasingly technically skilled ballet stars like Marie Camargo.
In terms of stage design, 18th century ballet often featured backdrops depicting mythological scenes or natural landscapes. The stage design was integrated with the theme of the performance, creating a more coherent performance and a more immersive experience for the audience. It is noteworthy that Charles Diddon invented a locking mechanism in his work "Flora and the West Wind," resembling modern wire and cable techniques in 1796. With the help of the new technique, dancers could touch the ground lightly with their toes as if they were flying. This innovation had a profound impact on the development of pointe shoes in later years.
Tang Dynasty Dance costumes were varied and colorful. The characteristic tradition Chinese attire, featuring broad collars, high waistlines, flared shoulders, and oversized silhouettes, represented the aesthetic and lifestyle of that era. From historical textual records and unearthed relics showing Tang Dynasty figurines of female dancers, we can appreciate the graceful and natural qualities reflected in the dance costumes. Female dancers typically wore flowing long skirts made of lightweight silk, with wide sleeves adorned with patterns and embroidery. The costumes varied significantly between dance styles. For example, soft dance costumes often featured large sleeves, while strong dance costumes tended to have smaller sleeves. Overall, Tang costumes emphasized dynamic beauty, helping to create a light and agile impression during the performances.
Tang Dynasty Dance, typically performed in royal courts or religious temples, also prioritized creating engaging stage designs. Backdrops usually included curtains or large screens embroidered with floral and bird motifs. In formal dance occasions, the accompanying music and percussion also played a crucial role in enhancing the visual impact of the performances, creating festive or solemn atmospheres.
In conclusion, the ballets of 18th century Europe and the dances of the Tang Dynasty in China display very different aesthetic expressions in terms of movement style and costume design, which are rooted in their unique historical and philosophical backgrounds. Influenced by Classical and Enlightenment ideals, ballet pursued verticality, symmetry, and standardisation, and costume and stage design transitioned from ornate courtly styles to more realistic representations.In contrast, Tang Dynasty dance blended Confucian and Daoist principles, emphasising harmony between mankind, nature and society. The movements are soft and beautiful, the costumes are colorful, reflecting traditional aesthetic features, and the stage design focuses on creating a sense of immersive atmosphere.
The obvious difference between the two dance styles stems from the fact that they are deeply rooted in their respective social and philosophical backgrounds. The rational pursuit of ballet and the humanistic sentiment of Tang Dance reflect the aesthetics and values of the time, and become artistic expressions that link cultural and philosophical spirits.
Conclusion
This essay explores the cultural, historical, aesthetic and functional similarities and differences between eighteenth-century European ballet and Chinese Tang Dynasty dance by comparatively analyzing the two. Although the two dance forms are distinctive in terms of technique, performance and cultural background, they both reflect the ideals and values of their respective societies. Through comparative analyses, we have enriched our understanding of beauty and would like to emphasise the importance of dance as a cross-cultural communication.
In conclusion, dance demonstrates the different exploration and pursuit of beauty by human beings with the changes of time and space, and also serves as a bridge for human civilization to move from regional expression to global understanding.
Reference：
Zhu, L. R. (2001). A general history of Western ballet. Shanghai Music Publishing House.
Yuan, H. (2004). A tutorial on the history of ancient Chinese dance. Shanghai Music Publishing House.
Chen, J. N. (2015). Art overview. Beijing: China Film Publishing House.
Winter, M.H. (1974). The Pre-Romantic Ballet. London: Pitman.
Noverre, J. G. (1983). Dance and letters. Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House.
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